Student Reader » Asia Minor

Iznik Ceramics

Levi Clancy — Sun, 04 Sep 2011 05:31:19 +0000

In antiquity, Iznik was a settlement important for its prolific ceramics industry. In 1331 Iznik became part of the Ottoman Empire; from the mid-14^th to the end of the 17^th century it was the Turks most successful and vital ceramics production center in Anatolia. Iznik’s earliest ceramics were produced under Seljuk influence, vessels of red clay and glazed with a single color. Tiles of the Seljuk period are decorated with mosaic, tinted glaze and compositions of yellow, turquoise, white rumi and palmetto on underglaze, usually with a dark blue background.

Miletus Ware	Late 14^th – Early 15^th Cent	Mainly plates and bowls from coarse red clay. Coloration is dark blue, turquoise, purple and cobalt blue on a white slip. Designs are simple, often radial lines, geometric design, vegetal motifs and/or animal figures. These vessels were erroneously titled Miletus Ware although their production was later traced to Iznik.
Blue & White Ware	Late 15^th – Early 16^th Cent	Tiles and vessels made of fine, hard, white clay and decorated in different shades of blue on transparent underglaze. Hexagonal form was used, particular in early tiles.
Golden Horn Ware	1530s-1550s	Variation of Blue & White Ware.
Blue & White Ware with Turquoise	Early-Mid 16^th Cent	Turquoise used together with blue.
Damascus Ware	1540-1550	Green and purple use for the first time, together with cobalt blue and turquoise. Precursor to use of many colors.
Polychrome Ware	Mid 16^th – End of 17^th Cent	The longest and most successful period, Polychrome Ware was made of hard white clay with designs in soft green and coral red on a lustrous transparent underglaze.

Hittite Empire

Levi Clancy — Sun, 21 Aug 2011 20:25:58 +0000

Hittite Empire		1400-1180
	Shupiluliuma I
Battle of Khadesh		~1274 BC

Seeher, Jürgen. 2006. Hattusha Guide: A Day in the Hittite Capital. Ege Yayinlary: Istanbul.

Anatolia

Levi Clancy — Sun, 21 Aug 2011 21:02:17 +0000

Karum Period	3000-1750 BC	At the start of the 2^nd millennium BC, Anatolia consisted of independent city-states and small rich kingdoms. The Land of Hatti spanned central and norther Anatolia; the language Hattian was of the Caucasian language group. Anatolia conducted extensive metal trade: it was rich in copper, silver and gold; however, it was poor in tin, necessary for bronze allow. The rich merchants of Assur established karums (trade colonies with no political affiliation) within territory of Anatolian kingdom. The primary Anatolian karum was Kanesh (aka Nesha, modern Kültepe). The karums brought literacy to Anatolia for the first time. The Assyrian trade colonies ended in the mid-18^th cent BC.

2^th Millenium Developments

Middle and Late Bronze Age — the Hittite Period. At the start of the 2^nd millennium BC, Anatolia consisted of independent city-states and small rich kingdoms. The Land of Hatti spanned central and norther Anatolia; the language Hattian was of the Caucasian language group. Anatolia conducted extensive metal trade: it was rich in copper, silver and gold; however, it was poor in tin, necessary for bronze allow.

Origin of Hittite State	~1650 BC	Hittites (originally Indo-European) first entered Anatolia in the mid-3^rd millennium BC. Their power was noticed by Anatolian kingdoms in the early 2^nd millennium BC. Ethnic Hittite Kanesh king Pithana and his son Kussara king Anitta united their kingdoms. In ~1650 BC, Kussara king Labarna I moved the capital of this Hittite kingdom from Kussara to Hattush, renamed it Hattusha and renamed himself Hattushili (“from Hattush”). The Hittite kingdom was the first to control all of Anatolia and it remained based at Hattusha until it collapsed in 1200-1180 BC.
Old Hittite Era	1650-1360 BC
Hittite Empire	1350-1180 BC

Persian Rule	546-333 BC	In 546 BC the Persians captured Sardis, the capital of the Lydian Kingdom and a city which they had long coveted. Thereafter Anatolia remained under the control of the Persians for 200 years. The political changes which occurred during this period also influenced the culture and art created within this East-West meeting-ground. At the newly established seats of the Persian satraps (provincial governors) such as Dascyleium (ergili near Lake Manyas), Sardis (in the vicinity of Manisa) and Halicarnassus (Bodrum) objects of art were produced both under Anatolian and under Persian influence. Stelae and reliefs discovered at he Dascyleium excavations reveal the characteristics of this new style which is a synthesis of eastern and western cultural traditions meeting for the first time, a so-called Ionian-Persian style of Anatolia, in which the dominant (royal?) Persian art demonstrably adopted a great deal from the Ionian style of Anatolia. For example: Cybele, the native mother goddess of Antaolia, is shown as winged and wearing a high cap. These are traits peculiar to Eastern art.
Byzantine Empire
Ottoman Empire

Anatolian Pantheon

Levi Clancy — Tue, 22 Mar 2011 21:57:44 +0000

Cybele	Fertility	Cybele, the mother goddess of fertility, was revered and worshipped in Antaolia from the Neolithic period. She was still important during the ARchaic period. Cybele, a native Anatolian goddess, was mistress of life and wild nature. This belief can be observed in the votive-stelae dedicated to her.

Bogazkale

Levi Clancy — Sun, 05 Dec 2010 06:32:11 +0000

Hattusha is in northern Central Anatolia at Cappadocia’s north edge. Today it is within a dry climatic zone that delivers short summers and long cold winters. Earlier however the region was more moist and temperate, with nearby forests, dense vegetation and a variety of wild game.

Hattusha remained the Hittites’ political and religious center until the state collapsed. However, it was far north of the Hittite territory center, which extended south into Syria. Its northern location made it vulnerable to attacks from groups from the Black Sea shores, especially the Gasga who at times completely sacked it. Some later rulers temporarily established capitals in the south but Hattusha remained the political and religious center of the Hittite state until the state collapsed.

Paleolithic		Very few traces of civilization in any of northern Anatolia
Mesolithic		Very few traces of civilization in any of northern Anatolia.
Neolithic		Very few traces of civilization in any of northern Anatolia’s mountainous and forested geography. However there are traces in the south, for example in Catal Huyuk and the Konya Plain.
Chalcolithic	6000-3000 BC	First settlements include one on the Büyükakaya ridge and near Yarikkaya. Settlement across northern Anatolia increased very slowly.
Early Bronze Age	3000-2000 BC	Coherent zones of habitation with trade were established. Toward the end of the Early Bronze Age a Hattian settlement was established at Bogazkale, beginning the site’s continuous occupation. Remnants of Hattian settlements have been found under the fill of the Hittite Lower City, and on the high ridges of Büyükkaya and Büyükkale.
Middle Bronze Age aka Karum Period	2000-1700 BC	Fortifications were laid out on Büyükkale, indicating this is where the Hattian rulers lived. Hattian settlement stretched from the slope of Büyükkale to the area where the Great Temple of the Hittites was later erected. Hattian occupation grew to the point that an Assyrian karum was established sometime in the 19^th/18^th centuries BC just to the north. This was one of several at Hattian centers. The Assyrian traders kept their residential quarters separate from the Hattians, although the Assyrians were nonetheless protected and taxed by the Hattian rulers. With the Assyrians arrived writing (Akkadian cuneiform) as business necessitated documentation. Transactions were recorded on tablets, along with the name of the Hattian city Hattush.
Hattusha Destroyed	~1700 BC	At the start of the 2^nd mill BC, Central Anatolia saw frequent conflict between the autochthonous Hattians and immigrant Hittites seeking to consolidate their power. A ~1700 BC burn layer at Hattush is corroborated by an inscription by King Anitta of Kushar, describing his defeat of King Piyushti of Hattush: “At night I took the city by force; I have sown weeds in its place. Should any king after me attempt to resettle Hattush may the Weathergod of Heaven strike him down” ².
Old Hittite Kingdom	~1650-1400 BC	Heralding from Kushar, in ~1650 BC the Hittite king Hattushili I chose to preside from Hattian Hattush, marking the beginning of the Hittite Hattusha ¹. Hattushili reintroduced cuneiform writing, which had fallen out of use when the Assyrian trade network disintegrated, thus ensuring a legacy of 30,000 clay tablets spanning laws, contracts, correspondences, cult procedures, oracular prophecies and ancient Near East literature.
Hattusha Destroyed	1400 BC	Under the reign of Hittite king Tudhaliya III the city “was burned to the ground” according to a cuneiform text ³. This is contemporaneous with a recension of Hittite power, the extent of Hittite hegemony contracting to just the Central Anatolian plateau ¹.
Hittite Empire	1400-1180 BC	Hittite king Shupiluliuma I led the Hittites to defeat the Mitanni, their mighty opponent straddling north Mesopotamia and south Anatolia.
Shupiluliuma I
Kesikkaya Excavated		1911

Hittite King Hattusili I

Levi Clancy — Sun, 05 Dec 2010 06:29:08 +0000

Hattusili inherited the throne of Kussara, then rapidly defeated his competitors in central Anatolia. Among his conquests was Hattush, which he renamed Hattusha and made his capital. He possibly changed his name to coincide with the name of the city. Hattusha remained the Hittites’ political and religious center until the state collapsed. However, it was far north of the Hittite territory center; Hattusili initiated southward expansion into Syria with its enticing fields, which were in contrast to Anatolia’s limited agricultural fields amidst its steep valleys and extensive rivers.

Hattusili invaded Yamkhad in northwest Syria, and sacked several cities including Alakh. Yamkhad’s capital Aleppo remained un-captured despite several nearby campaigns. Hattusili also campaigned in southwestern Anatolia. However, his large state descended into disarray. Hattusili’s sons rebelled against him late in his life, and he was even betrayed by his nephew who was his chosen successor. Thus, on his deathbed, Hattusili appointed his grandson Mursili as his heir. Mursili engaged in a destructive campaign which wiped out major power centers and ushered in a Dark Age.

Period or Event	Time-Frame	Overview
Hattusili Ascends	Early 17^th Cent

Didyma

Levi Clancy — Thu, 13 May 2010 09:03:41 +0000

Didyma, near Miletus in Asia Minor, was the site of a famous oracle at the Sanctuary of Apollo. During the 6th century BC, visitors to the sanctuary gave gifts which made it one of the richest in Greece. Didyma was linked with the sea by a Sacred Way. The Sacred Way was lined with monumental statues offered as gifts to Apollo. Most statues represent seated men and women, sometimes identified by inscriptions as members of aristocratic families. The grand scale of the Sacred Way reflects the wealth and power of 6th century Miletus, a great sea-faring city which managed to regain its political independence while surrounding areas succumbed to Lydians and then Persians.

Ephesus

Levi Clancy — Thu, 13 May 2010 09:02:46 +0000

Ephesus was a wealthy Greek city on the west coast of Asia Minor. It benefited from its fine harbor and the rich hinterland of Lydia. Throughout antiquity, the sanctuary and great temple of Artemis made Ephesus a place of pilgrimage. Before the Greeks arrived, the locals worshipped an Anatolian mother-goddess; the Greeks worshipped her as Artemis, with Artemis’ cult resembling her predecessor’s in its emphasis on vegetation and fertility.

The Basis Built	7^th Cent BC	An early shrine later incorporated into the first large-scale temple.
First Temple Built	6^th Cent BC	Croesus, the Lydian king renowned for his great wealth, contributed generously to the cost of the new building, which was among the most richly-ornamented of all Archaic Greek temples. It was on a grand scale with dimensions of 115m by 55m and with a double row of columns all around.
First Temple Destroyed	356 BC	The first temple was destroyed by fire. According to tradition, this was one the night that Alexander the Great was born in Macedon.
New Temple Built		A new temple was built on the same site.

Karia

Levi Clancy — Thu, 13 May 2010 09:01:23 +0000

Karia in southwest Anatolia was ruled for much of the 4th century BC by the Hekatomnid dynasty under Persian control. The Hekatomnid dynasty was a great patron of sanctuaries in many parts of the Greek world. The most famous Hekatomnid ruler was Maussollos, best known for his great tomb the Mausoleum of Halikarnassos. Like other satraps of the period, Maussollos forged links with both Greece and Persia to achieve his own political ambitions.

Republic of Turkey

Levi Clancy — Fri, 05 Mar 2010 14:00:07 +0000

Turkish Coup	1980 09 12	Constitution ratified on same day as coup.
PKK + Turk Fighting Erupts	1984	In southeastern Turkey, Kurdish guerrillas led by the Kurdish Workers’ Party (PKK) began fighting with the Turkish army. The death-toll exceeded 20,000 by 1996.
Massive Earthquakes	1999 08 17	Two powerful earthquakes, measuring 6.7 and 7.4 on the Richter scale respectively, hit northwestern and western Turkey, killing about 18,000 people and affecting hundreds of thousands of others.
Bingol Earthquake	2003 05 01	At least 167 were killed and over 500 others injured when a quake measuring 6.4 on the Richter scale hit Turkey’s eastern province of Bingol.
Eastern Earthquakes	2004 03	A 5.1-magnitude quake jolted eastern Turkey on March 26 2004, leaving at least 9 dead and 46 others injured. Another quake measuring 5.3 on the Richter scale in the same region injured 12 people on March 28.
Bingol Earthquake	2005 03 12	An earthquake measuring 5.7 on the Richter scale jolted Turkey’s eastern province of Bingol. No casualties were reported.
Northwestern Earthquake	2006 10 24	An earthquake measuring 5.2 on the Richter scale jolted northwestern Turkey, but caused no casualties or serious damage.
Eastern Earthquake	2007 02 21	A 5.9-magnitude earthquake jolted eastern Turkey, causing slight damage but no casualties.
Bala Earthquake	2007 12 20	A 5.5-magnitude earthquake shook Bala town, but caused no casualties.
Ankara Earthquake	2007 12 27	Quake hit the Turkish capital of Ankara, damaging 945 buildings.
Explosives Discovered	06 2007	Cache of explosives discovered; ex-soldiers detained
Coup Organizers Arrested	07 2008	20 arrested, including two ex-generals and a senior journalist, for “planning political disturbances and trying to organise a coup”
AK Party Escapes Ban	07 2008	Governing AK Party narrowly escapes court ban
Southeast Earthquake	2008 09 03	A 5.1-magnitude earthquake shook southeastern Turkey, damaging some houses in the region. No casualties were reported.
First Ergenekon Trial	2008/10	86 go on trial charged with “Ergenekon” coup plot
Second Ergenekon Trial	2009/07	56 in dock as second trial opens
PKK Kidnappings	2009 10	The Turkish daily Sabah reported that the intelligence unit of Tokat Governor’s Office said at the end of October that a 20-people PKK group in the region headed towards Tunceli province, and that some of the members of the group were missing. This indicated that this group might launched the attack Resadiye/Tokat.
PKK Attack	2009 12 07	The military command of the PKK, the HPG, claimed responsibility for the attack in Tokat on 7 December, which killed 7 Turkish soldiers. “The action in Tokat is a retaliation action, which has carried out by one of our units on its own initiative.” Earlier before it was still unclear who was behind the attack.
Mediterranean Earthquake	2009 12 22	Quake measuring 5.4 on the Richter scale shook Turkey’s Mediterranean region, damaging some buildings.
Coup Plot Exposed	2010/01	Reports of the alleged sledgehammer plot first surfaced in the liberal Taraf newspaper, which said it had discovered documents detailing plans in 2003 to bomb two Istanbul mosques and provoke Greece into shooting down a Turkish plane over the Aegean Sea.
Coup Plot Convictions	2010/02	After a week of high drama at the state security court in Istanbul, the judges have almost completed their assessment of the 49 military suspects detained on Monday. Thirty-one officers, among them seven navy admirals and four army generals, have been charged with conspiring to provoke a military takeover in the months following the AKP’s first election victory in 2002. That makes this the most ambitious attempt yet to prosecute armed forces personnel in civilian courts. Three other officers, including the general who allegedly masterminded the plot, are still being questioned. For the once untouchable military the week’s events will have been a humbling experience. But it could have been worse; last night the three most senior officers among the 49 were released.
Gul Reassures Turkey	2010/02/25	On Thursday, Turkish President Abdullah Gul sought to reassure the country, saying tensions over an alleged military coup plot would be resolved within the “constitution”. The alleged sledgehammer plot was first revealed by the liberal Taraf newspaper. Gul made the statement after meeting the head of the armed forces, Gen Ilker Basbug, along with Turkish Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdogan. Turkey’s military has overthrown or forced the resignation of four governments since 1960 – most recently in 1997 – though Gen Basbug has insisted that coups are a thing of the past. (link)
Earthquake Hits East	2010 03 08	Fifty-seven people had been killed by the quake, which caused the most deaths in six villages around the epicenter in the Karakocan town of the eastern province of Elazig, the newspaper quoted Karakocan mayor as saying. The quake struck Basyurt region of Karakocan town at a depth of 5 km at 4:32 a.m. local time (0232 GMT), said the Istanbul-based Kandilli Observatory and Earthquake Research Institute of Turkey’s Bogazici University. Tremors were also felt in neighboring provinces of Tunceli, Bingol and Diyarbakir, said Hurriyet Daily News. The institute has so far reported 27 aftershocks and more are expected over the next hours and days, according to the newspaper. The Turkish Red Crescent had sent 500 tents and foodstuff to the quake zone, while State Minister and Deputy Prime Minister Cemil Cicek and other senior officials had left the capital Ankara for Elazig, the semi-official Anatolia news agency reported. (link)
Withdraws Ambassadors	03 2010	Turkey withdrew its ambassadors to Washington and Stockholm after a U.S. congressional committee and the Swedish parliament passed the non-binding resolutions.
Armenian Deportation Threat	16 03 2010	Asked during an interview with the BBC Turkish service in London on Tuesday what he thought about the resolutions, Erdogan said: “There are currently 170,000 Armenians living in our country. Only 70,000 of them are Turkish citizens, but we are tolerating the remaining 100,000. If necessary, I may have to tell these 100,000 to go back to their country because they are not my citizens. I don’t have to keep them in my country.” The majority of Armenians in Turkey live and work in Istanbul. Many came after an earthquake in their homeland in 1988 and work illegally and send remittances home. (link)
Constitutional Reforms	2010 09 13	Both government and opposition activists had elevated the referendum into a vote on Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdogan, leader of the Justice and Development Party, or AKP, which espouses a blend of liberal democracy and Islam that rattles many secular Turks. Erdogan said in a televised appearance before enthusiastic supporters that the country “passed a historic threshold” on its way democracy and vowed to seek more changes to the constitution, according to local media. “Supporters of military intervention and coups are the losers tonight.” … The 26-item package of reforms includes amendments to bar gender discrimination, bolster civil liberties, expand workplace rights, increase privacy rights and lift immunity from prosecution for those military leaders responsible for the 1980 coup. But it also includes more controversial measures that grant elected officials and ordinary judges more power over the composition of the senior judiciary, which Erdogan and his allies regard as the last bastion of a fading secular elite. Opposition leaders see the changes as a power grab and warned of a civilian coup. Despite a day of heavy rain, Turks turned out in droves for the referendum, with polling places at schools in the main cities swarming with voters from both camps. Officials said 77% of eligible voters participated despite a boycott call by Turkey’s main ethnic Kurdish opposition party. (LA Times) The referendum on 26 amendments to a constitution that was crafted after a 1980 military coup has become a battleground between the Islamic-oriented government and traditional power elites that believe Turkey’s secular principles are under threat. The outcome will set the stage for elections next year in a strategically-located NATO ally whose regional clout has surged in recent years. Street clashes marred voting at several polling stations in provinces with large Kurdish populations. A Kurdish party has urged supporters to boycott the ballot, arguing that the proposed changes would not advance the rights of the ethnic minority. Since Saturday, police nationwide have detained 138 people suspected of threatening people into boycotting the vote or casting their ballot in a certain way, Interior Minister Besir Atalay said. In Ankara, the Turkish capital, President Abdullah Gul appealed for harmony in a country that, if divided on other levels, was fiercely united on one front this weekend. In an Istanbul arena Sunday night, Turkey faces the United States in the final of the world basketball championships. … The civilian government says the amendments fall in line with European Union requirements for membership, partly by making the military more accountable to civilian courts and allowing civil servants to go on strike. The opposition, however, believes a provision that would give parliament more say in appointing judges masks an attempt to control the courts, which have sparred with Erdogan’s camp. The military and the court system, including the Constitutional Court, have sought to uphold the secular legacy of Mustafa Kemal Ataturk, who founded Turkey in 1923, and the ruling Justice and Development Party has been accused of plotting to undo those principles. The ruling party, whose reforms have won backing from the EU, says the hardline emphasis on secularism and nationalism must be updated to incorporate democratic change, including religious freedoms. It lost a battle in 2008 when the Constitutional Court struck down a government-backed amendment lifting a ban on the wearing of Muslim headscarves in universities. If approved, the constitutional amendments would also remove immunity from prosecution for the engineers of the 1980 coup. Kenan Evren, the military chief who seized power and became president, is 93 and ailing. (AP) Turkish lawmakers approved the package earlier this year but not by the two-thirds majority necessary for the government to press ahead without a referendum. The measures have also been ratified by Turkish President Abdullah Gul, Erdogan’s AKP ally. (CNN)
PKK-Turkey Skirmish	2010 09 12	Skirmish between the PKK and Turkish military in Siirt. (link)
Bomb in Sirnak	2010 09 19	On Sunday, a bomb believed to have been planted by guerrillas killed two pro-government guards in Sirnak province, bordering Iraq, Anatolia news agency reported.
Cease-Fire Expires	2010 09 20

http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/8538484.stm

http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/world/2010-03/08/c_13202150.htm

Ottoman Reconquest of Mesopotamia

Levi Clancy — Fri, 15 Jan 2010 11:12:49 +0000

Ottoman Re-Conquest	Early 19^th Cent	Direct Ottoman rule was reimposed, and reforms were instated, spearheaded by Midhat Pasha. Under the rule of Sultan Mahmud II (1808-39) the central Ottoman government began to implement the Nizam-i Cedid (New Order) which reclaimed power from semi-autonomous provincial governors into the hands of the sultan
Taking Baghdad	1831	Da’ud Pasha, the mamluk governor of Baghdad, refused to comply with the New Order and relinquish his office. An Ottoman army led by ‘Ali Rida Pasha, governor of Aleppo, invaded Baghdad. Da’ud Pasha was captured along with his city, ending mamluk rule in Baghdad..
Taking Basra		‘Ali Rida Pasha went on to occupy Basra and end mamluk rule in that city.
Taking Mosul	1834	Central Ottoman rule was restored in Mosul, ending the hold of the Jalili family on the governorship. The three provinces were now under direct rule from Istanbul.
Tanzimat Reforms		Sultan Abdulmecid implemented the Tanzimat Reforms, which transformed landholding, administration, conscription, law and public education. However, these reforms were implemented at different rates, depending on the initiative, energy and tenure of the Ottoman governors appointed by authorities in Istanbul. However, the norms and methods of the mamluk era endured; furthermore, Ottoman power over major cities did not necessarily increase hegemony over semi-autonomous tribes and tribal confederations of the countryside. Ottoman reforms nonetheless brought a new way of politics to Mesopotamia, one largely built on the European model.
Land Law of 1858	1858	The Land Law of 1858 sought to formalize land tenure, creating security of tenure (whilst reasserting state ownership) in hopes of encouraging productive and settled agriculture, attracting investment and generating tax revenues. The land reform involved the granting of title deeds (tapu sanad) to anyone who possessed or occupied land. The land remained state property, but the registered owner of the title deed had nearly complete rights of ownership. Collective ownership of land was expressly prohibited and registration could only be in the name of an individual. Thus, areas of tribal cultivation were registered under the powerful shaikh. Due to ignorance, superstition and/or misplaced trust in the shaikh, tribal cultivators failed to register and thus become tenant farmers. On lands belonging to the sultant (saniyya lands), tax-farming continued and tax-farming rights were periodically auctioned, thus denying the inhabitants a long enough tenancy to apply for title deeds. The Land Law of 1858 brought about conflicts. Namely, cultivators were oft stripped of their land rights. Registered owners were sometimes wholly unconnected with the cultivators, instead gathering title deeds via influence or capital. Gaining rights to land did not only confer power over the newly-privatized land, but also conferred power over those who cultivated it. This restructured social power, as agricultural land was now private property.
Vilayet Law of 1864	1864	The Vilayet Law of 1864 mapped the boundaries of Iraq’s three provinces a new structure of administration from the provincial to the village levels. The Vilayet Law sought to bring the central administration systematically down to people hitherto outside the state apparatus. More radically, the Vilayet Law intended to involve even previously uninvolved Muslims and non-Muslims from the general population into various administrative councils alongside Ottoman officials.
مدحت پاشا Midhat Pasha	1869-1872	مدحت پاشا Midhat Pasha attained the Baghdad governorship and made concerted efforts to build for the future. مدحت پاشا MIdhat Pasha energetically and forcefully implement the Land Law and Vilayet Law. The Vilayet Law was relatively easy, as Istanbul was eager to assert its centralized authority and the populace was receptive. The Land Law was not fully implemented by the time Midhat Pasha was recalled to Istanbul in 1872.
Young Turk Revolution	1908	The Young Turk revolution occurs in Istanbul.
Abdulhamid II Deposed	1909	Sultan Abdulhamid II is deposed.
British Occupy Basra	November 1914	British occupation of Basra.
British Occupy Baghdad	March 1917	British occupation of Baghdad.
British Occupy Mosul	November 1918	British occupation of Mosul.

Tripp, Charles. A History of Iraq: New Edition.

Marr, Phoebe. The Modern History of Iraq, 2nd Edition. 2004. Westview Press. Boulder, Colorado.

Ottoman Conquest of Mesopotamia

Levi Clancy — Tue, 12 Jan 2010 22:31:47 +0000

	1514	The Ottoman conquest of العراق Iraq began as an outgrowth of a religious war between the Sunni Ottoman sultan and the shi’a Safavid shah. The territory making up most of contemporary العراق Iraq came under permanent Ottoman rule. Mesopotamia was split into three provinces based on the towns of Mosul, Baghdad and Basra. The Ottoman Empire was at the peak of its power when it conquered العراق Iraq, and was able to give العراق Iraq stable government and a uniform administration.
Recension	17th Cent	The Ottoman Empire lost direct control over the Iraqi provinces. Tension between the Sunni Ottomans and Shi’i Safavid shahs of Persia led to fragmentation and diminished control from the central Ottoman government in Istanbul. Initiative and power lay with those who could command forces.

Tripp, Charles. A History of Iraq: New Edition.

Marr, Phoebe. The Modern History of Iraq, 2nd Edition. 2004. Westview Press. Boulder, Colorado.

Byzantine Empire

Levi Clancy — Thu, 07 Jan 2010 03:32:50 +0000

Siege of Doppio	1658/09/03	The Ottoman Empire began its siege of Doppio Castle

Ottoman Empire

Levi Clancy — Thu, 07 Jan 2010 03:31:51 +0000

Opening to Turks	1071/08/26	After the Battle of Malazgirt, Anatolia opened its doors to the Turks.

Hittite Civilization

Levi Clancy — Sun, 03 Jan 2010 06:39:55 +0000

Old Hittite Kingdom
Middle Hittite Kingdom
Hittite Empire

Hatussha	Bogazkale	Capital
Tabigga	Masat Höyük
Shapinuwa	Ortaköy
Sarissa	Kusakli

Ottoman Empire: Iconography

Levi Clancy — Sat, 26 Dec 2009 00:54:39 +0000

Image	Artifact	Date	Overview
Icon of the Triumph of Orthodoxy. About 1400. Constantinople. Egg tempera, gesso, wood, linen, gold-lead. British Museum. PE 1988.0411.1. Purchased with the aid of The Art Fund. Image by L. M. Clancy, 2009/09/13.	Icon of Triumph of Orthodoxy	About 1400	In AD 730 the Byzantine Emperor Leo III forbade the use of icons within the empire. The judgment was not universally popular and Empress Theodora restored their use in 843. This icon celebrates the ‘Triumph of the Orthodoxy’ over iconoclasm. It shows the empress (top left) and her son, Emperor Michael III, with saints and religious leaders. On an altar is an image of the Virgin Hodegetria (‘she who knows the way’) which was believed to have been painted by St. Luke from life. The notion of St. Luke as a painter was crucial to the argument that icons had existed since the birth of Christ.
Icon of St. John the Baptist. About 1300. Constantinople. Wood, linen, gold-leaf, gesso, paint. British Museum. PE 1986.0708.1; purchased with the aid of The Art Fund, British Museum Publications Ltd and S. Niarchos. Image by L. M. Clancy, 2009/09/13.	Icon of St. John the Baptist	About 1300	St. John, the cousin of Jesus, was seen as the last of the prophets. This depiction of the saint shows him in a prophet’s robes holding a scroll. His unkempt hair and the hint of a camel hair skirt under his red tunic are an allusion to his life as a hermit. St. John’s intense gaze invites a certain intimacy which, combined with the small scale of this icon, indicates it was probably used for a private devotion.
Icon of St. Peter. About 1320. Constantinople. Cedar, linen, gold-leaf, gesso, paint. British Museum. PE 1983.0401.1. Image by L. M. Clancy, 2009/09/13.	Icon of St. Peter	About 1320	This icon is of the highest quality. It depicts St. Peter as an elderly man carrying a scroll. The scroll bares a Greek inscription which is a plea for celibacy. This subjects indicates that the icon may have been painted for a community of monks. The icon was originally much larger and it was probably designed to be viewed at a distance as a prominent piece of public devotional art.

Iznik

Levi Clancy — Mon, 02 Nov 2009 03:46:51 +0000

Iznik is the city of Dionysus, God of Wine. According to myth, Nicaea (daughter of River God Sangarios and Goddess Cybele) took an oath that she would never marry. She lived in a forest and liked hunting. One day she met a shepherd named Hymnus who fell in love with Nicaea upon seeing her. Nicaea, however, shot Hymnus with an arrow. The God of Love Eros was angered by her behavior and turned to the God of Wine Dionysus for help to punish her. But Dionysus also fell in love with Nicaea when he saw her bathing in the river. He feared that she would shoot him as well, so he added wine to the river from which Nicaea drank. When she was drunk he seduced her. As soon as Nicaea realized she was pregnant she tried to commit suicide, but Dionysus convinced her to give birth to his child. Upon returning from India, Dionysus founded Nicaea (modern Iznik) after his beloved. The phrase Eis Ten Nikaeieon (Greek for To Nicaea) was truncated to Iznik in present times. Highlights of the city include Süleyman Pasa Madrasa.

	~2500 BC	Mounds: Karadin, Çiçekli, Yügücek and Çakirca reveal Iznik’s history begins at ~2500 BC.
Helikare		The settlement was known as Helikare before the arrival of Thracian immigrants.
Thracian Immigration	7^th Cent BC
Phrygian Renovation	4^th Cent BC	The settlement became known as Antigoneia following its renovation by the Phrygian Governor of the Macedonian Kingdom.
Lysimachus’ Capture	After 332 BC	After the death of Alexander the Great, Antigoneia was captured by Lysimachus, the ex-governor of Thrace, and its name was changed to Nicaea. The name Nicaea was ascribed to Lysimachus’ wife Nike.
Bithynian Capture	293 BC	The Bythinian Kingdom annexed Nicaea. Great architecture arose in the city and it became home to a gold coin mint, thus earning it the nickname of Golden City.
Earthquake	123 AD	An earthquake devastated Nicaea.
Roman Capture		The Romans battled the Bithynian Kingdom for many years before capturing the capital Nicaea and reconstructing it. The city at this point was surrounded by 4,970 kilometer city walls and had 4 main and 12 subordinate gates.
Christianity		The Apostle St. Peter introduced Iznik to Christianity. Roman Emperor Constantine I abolished all prohibitions relating to Christianity.
1^st Ecumenical Council	325 AD	The 1^st Ecumenical Council gathered in the palace at Iznik in the presence of Roman Emperor Constantine I. One of the subjects at hand was the debate between Alexandrian priest Arius’ thesis and that of the bishops. Arius held that Jesus Christ was not eternal and was subordinate to God the Gather. The bishops’ view was that Jesus Christ was one of substance with God the Father. After much debate the latter view was accepted and the Council formulated Nicene Creed and 20 canons as well as agreed on the date of Easter.
7^th Ecumenical Council	787 AD	The 7^th Ecumenical Council was held in the Asasofya Church at Iznik.
Prohibitions Lifted	8^th Cent AD	Empress Irene lifts prohibitions on paintings and statues.
Ottoman Capture	1331	The Ottomans commanded by Orhan Gazi captured Iznik and it became an art, ceramic, tile, trade and culture hub. The Ottoman Period’s first mosque, madrasa and soup kitchen were all constructed in Iznik in the 14^th, 15^th and 16^th centuries. Famous Sufis including Davud-u Kayseri, Ebul Fadil Musa and Esrefoglu Abdullah Rumi lived in Iznik.

Tourist Attractions in Iznik

Nilüfer Hatun Soup Kitchen
Ayasofya Museum
Yesil (Green) Mosque	A single-domed mosque built 1378-1392 by the architect Haci Musa. Requested by Halil Hayrettin Pasha.
Haci Özbek Mosque (Çarsi Masjid)	Built in 1333, Haci Özbek Mosque is the oldest Ottoman mosque in Iznik. Built of hewn stone and brick with a square plan and no minaret, with a dome that is 8m in diameter and covered with roof tiles.
Mahmut Çelebi Mosque	Mahmut Çelebi, a grandson of Hayrettin Pasha, had Mahmut Çelebi Mosque built in the district centre in 1442. It has a single dome and a minaret. There is an inscription over the entry gate./td>
Yakup Çelebi Dervish Lodge and Tomb	Constructed in the 14^th century by Yakup Çelebi, the younger brother of Yildirim Bayezid. There is a single domed tomb in the garden. The tomb of Takup Çelebi is not in this tomb but in the tomb of Murad I in Bursa.
Seyh Kudbetting Mosque and Tomb	Ibrahim Pasha, a vizier of Sultan Bayezi II, requested the construction of this mosque and tomb for Sheik Seyh Kudbettin in the 15^th century AD. Only the minaret of the mosque survives.
Esref-i Rumî Mosque and Tomb
Kirgizlar Tomb
Sari Saltuk Tomb
Çandarli Hayrettin Pasa Tomb
Çandarli Ibrahim Pasa Tomb and Soup Kitchen
Çabdarku Halil Pasa Tomb
Huysuzlar Tomb
Ahiveyn Sultan Tomb
Abdülvahap Sancaktari Tomb

Nilüfer Hatun Soup Kitchen

Levi Clancy — Mon, 02 Nov 2009 03:46:50 +0000

Construction	1388	The Nilüfer Hatun Soup Kitchen was Built by Sultan Murat I in memory of his mother Nilüfer Hatun. It was the first soup kitchen built with a reverse T-shaped plan.
End of Soup Kitchen	Late 19^th Cent
Greek Destruction		The Greek occupation largely destroyed the structure during the Independence War.
Restoration	1960	The structure was restored in 1960 and re-opened as a museum.

Iznik Ayasofya Museum

Levi Clancy — Mon, 02 Nov 2009 03:46:50 +0000

Construction		Constructed by the Emperor Justinian over the ruins of a former church dating back to the 4^th century.
7^th Ecumenical Council	787 AD	The 7^th Ecumenical Council was held here.
Earthquake	11^th Cent	Demolished by an earthquake.
Reconstruction		Rebuilt in the shape of a basilica with three naves.
Ottoman Conquest	1331	After the conquest of Iznik by Orhan Gazi, the basilica shaped church was made into a mosque.
Expansion		Under the reign of Sultan Süleyman the Magnificent, the mosque was expanded with a minaret on the front and its walls were decorated by the famous architect Sinan.

Karum Kanesh

Levi Clancy — Wed, 14 Oct 2009 00:27:30 +0000

View Larger Map

Amorites were mobile pastoralists perhaps living in North central syria near the jumble-bishree. After entering Assur, their commercial ambitions led them to form the colony Karum Kanesh (aka Kanis or Kanes) a few hundred miles north of Assur on the Anatolian plateau. Most of our knowledge of early Assyria is from Karum Kanesh, as Assur is relatively devoid of evidence during this period.

Phrygia

Levi Clancy — Wed, 30 Sep 2009 22:02:33 +0000

Founded in the 8^th cent BC in the Sangarius Region, the Phrygian kingdom (750-546 BC) was one of three major Anatolian kingdoms founded in the first half of the 1^st millennium BC along with Lydia (west) and Urartu (east). Phrygians were Indo-European nomads that entered Anatolia via Thrace toward the end of the 13^th cent BC. At its peak, Phrygian hegemony extended to the Euphrates river in the east, Afyon in the west, Samsun (Amisos) in the north and Burdur in the southwest.

Phrygian Kingdom		The first king was Gordias and the Phrygian capital was established at Gordion. Phrygians worshipped the Mother Goddess Cybele and her lover Attis. Burials of kings, lords and nobles included tumuli and monumental tombs cut into natural rocks. Peasant burials included small tumuli, pits and pethos.
Gordias		The first king of the Phrygian kingdom.
Midas	Late 8^th Cent BC	Phrygian power peaked under Phrygian king Midas.
Cimmerian Invasion	Early 7^th Cent BC	Heralding from the Caucasus, the Cimmerians invaded and destroyed the already weakened Phrygian kingdom.
	Late 7^th Cent BC	Small Phrygian municipalities endured while dominated by the Lydian kingdom.
Collapse	545 BC	Phrygians their independence to the Persians in 545 BC.

Anatolian Black Tents

Levi Clancy — Tue, 29 Sep 2009 21:17:51 +0000

Clockwise: carding wool on a wooden carding comb with iron spikes to clean the wool and parallel fibers prior to spinning; preparing tulum peyniri, sheep’s milk cheese preserved in a specially preserved goatskin; spinning wool for a kilim using a kirman (spindle) with a crossed wood whorl; not shown a woman is sewing a dress for her daughter on a much prized hand-driven sewing machine. Instanbul Museum of Turkish and Islamic Art. Image by L. M. Clancy. Instanbul Museum of Turkish and Islamic Art. Image by L. M. Clancy.

Anatolian Black Tents are woven of goathair by female nomads or urban centers’ male weavers. Women set up and dismantle the tents. It takes about an hour to unload the camels, erect the tent and arrange the inside. After this the women can dutifully continue: baking bread; preparing food; making clothes; spinning; milking; etc. An average tent is 5-6.5 m long and 4-5.5 m wide, supported by 3 poles; larger tents require 4 and exceptionally 5 poles. The top is made of 75-80 cm sections sewn together. The sides are attached to the top by wooden or metal pins. Inner reed screens keep out wind and dust. The front and right side can be lifted for ventilation.

Possessions are stored in alacuval, woven sacs with vertical sumac weave decoration. Alacuval are piled at the rear of the tent as a comfortable and attractive wall for visitors to lean against. Alacuval are oft woven in pairs for loading onto camels. Sumac weave styles are Alyanak, Göklüaya and Kirkbudak. Spatial arrangement is strongly conserved.

Side	Arrangement
Left	Kitchen and food storage.
Back	Bedding and then alacuval sacs, forming a single row.
Right	Usually kept free. Occasionally storage space.
Front	Kept free, except in evenings when there is oft a fire and tea kettle.
Center	Bedding covers the whole center in the evening.

Kadesh Treaty

Levi Clancy — Fri, 25 Sep 2009 08:21:04 +0000

Kadesh Treaty, ~1269 BC. Akkadian on Terracotta from Hattusa. Museum of the Ancient Orient Bo. 10403+6549+6674. Image by L. M. Clancy, 2009/08/28.

The Kadesh Treaty was established ~1269 BC between Hittite king Hattusilis III and Egyptian pharaoh Ramses II, and is the earliest known equitable peace treaty. Ramses II’s reign began with hostility against the Hittite Empire, culminating in the mutually devastating Battle of Kadesh. The overextended Hittites lost the critical Mitanni region; and Egypt’s defeat prompted its Levantine vassals to revolt. Nearly six years after the Battle of Kadesh, Egypt and the Hittites allied for: non-aggression to avoid further ruin; and mutual military aid to thwart the encroachment of the Sea Peoples.

Two Egyptian and three Akkadian versions of the treaty are known to exist. One Egyptian version was carved into the walls of the temple of Amon at Karnak; another was carved into the walls of the Ramesseum, though it embellished Egypt’s peacemaking role. The three Akkadian versions are much closer to the formal agreement; these were excavated at Hattusha by joint Turkish and German teams (led by Hügo Winckler and Teodor Makridy). One of these Hittite tablets are at Staatliche Museen zu Berlin; two are at the Istanbul Archaeological Museums. Below are excerpts from the treaty:

Treaty of Rea-Mashesha-Mai Amana the great king, the king of the land of Egypt, the valiant, with Hattusilis, the great king of the Hatti land for establishing good peace and good brotherhood worthy of great kingship forever.

These are the words of Rea-Mashasha-Mai Amana: Now I have established good brotherhood [and] good peace between us forever. In order to establish good peace [and] good brotherhood in the relationship of the land of Egypt with the Hatti land forever.

Thus: Behold, as for the relationship between the land of Egypt and the Hatti land, since eternity the god does not permit the making of hostility between them because of a treaty [valid] forever.

If an enemy from abroad comes against the land of Egypt and Rea-Mashesha-Mai Amana, the king of the land of Egypt, your brother sends to Hattusilis, the great king of the Hatti land, his brother saying: “come here to help me against him” to Hattusilis, the king of the Hatti land shall send his footsoldiers [and] his charioteers and shall slay my enemies.

Sanctuary of Demeter at Knidos

Levi Clancy — Sat, 19 Sep 2009 14:52:17 +0000

The Sanctuary of Demeter at Knidos was built amidst the refounding of Knidos in ~350 BC. Demeter was worshipped at the Sanctuary together with Hades, consort of her daughter Persephone. The Sanctuary consisted of a long platform terraced into the acropolis, giving it a magnificent view of Knidos and the Mediterranean Sea. Mostly fragments remain of the sanctuary’s impressive collection of marble sculptures, although the cult statue of Demeter herself remains notably intact. Also excavated were: lamps and glass bottles from ~350 BC to the Roman period; and terracotta figures.

Yazilikaya

Levi Clancy — Sat, 19 Sep 2009 01:56:35 +0000

Yazilikaya (written rock) is the largest known Hittite rock sanctuary. It may have been a place for celebrating the arrival of the New Year each spring. It was established in its present form by Hittite king Tudhaliya IV.

Building	A substantial building blocked outside entrance to Chamber A.
Chamber A	Chamber A was carved in high relief with the Hurrian Pantheon. It depicts two processions, with male deities on the left (two exceptions) and female deities on the right. Luwian hieroglyphs provide each deity’s name above its projecting hand. The two processions meet at the back wall at Chamber A’s main scene, a meeting of the Storm God Tesup and the Sun Goddess Hepat. Opposite the main scene is the largest relief in the chamber, a portrayal of Hittite king Tudhaliya IV.
Chamber B	Through a narrow passage is Chamber B, a late 13^th cent BC memorial dedicated to Tudhaliya IV by his son Supiluliuma II. Chamber B was buried until the late 19^th cent, keeping its reliefs well-preserved. The Chamber B reliefs depict: the 12 Gods of the Underworld; Nergal, god of the Underworld; a cartouche with the name of Tudhaliya IV; and the god Sarruma guiding Tudhaliya IV. The limestone block near the entrance was likely a base for a statue of Tudhaliya IV. Niches in the chamber could have held offerings.

Old Hittite Period

Levi Clancy — Sat, 12 Sep 2009 15:50:34 +0000

Arrival of Hittites		< 2000 BC	Hittites drifted into central Anatolia from the Caucasus during the second half of the 3^rd millenium BC. They retained the name Hatti from their land but called their Indo-European language Neshian/Nesili, meaning language of Nesa. Nesili became the official written language of the Hittite state, even if it was not spoken by most of its subjects. Nesa was the indigenous name for Kanesh. This provides a link between the Old Assyrian colonies and later Hittite history. Another link is the find of a dagger in the citadel at Kanesh, inscribed in Old Assyrian script and language with the name Anitta, who is identified as the ruler; the figure Anitta is central in the early Hittite Anitta Text.Also entering Anatolia were the Luvians (south and west) and Palaians (north and northwest).
Old Hittite Kingdom		1650-1400 BC	Sources for the Old Hittite Kingdom are very different from those in the rest of the Near East; the palace archives of the later Hittite state contained a set of texts relating military campaigns of these early rulers or dealing with succession problems. However, it is unclear if these texts are actual copies of older texts or later compositions set in ancient times for current political purposes.

	Hattushili I	Early 17^th Cent	Hattushili I built an empire via military campaigns in Central Anatolia and to the south in northern Syria. He re-introduced cuneiform writing into the derelect Hattian site of Hattush when he chose it for the Hittite capital Hattusha.
	Mursili		Mursili’s reign is attested by few sources, but what is available shows he continued Hattushili I’s southward campaigns, delving further south in an effort to seize the Mesopotamian trade routes. He committed two extremely important acts: the destruction of Aleppo; and the destruction of Babylon, which ended Hammurabi’s reign. He did not occupy these cities, however, and it is unclear why he even went to Babylon since it was so far away he could only raid it. Upon returning home, Mursili’s brother-in-law Hantili assassinated him and seized the throne. Hantili quickly met the same fate and the succession was contested. Internal instability caused the recension of Hittite hegemony to its heartland in central Anatolia. Mursili’s destructions of Aleppo and Babylon, and the collapse of the Hittite state, led to a power vacuum in Anatolia, Syria and Mesopotamia which plunged the Near East into turmoil and ushered in the ensuing Dark Age of the mid-2^nd millenium.

1
p 173-
Seeher, Jürgen. 2006. Hattusha Guide: A Day in the Hittite Capital. Ege Yayinlary: Istanbul.

2
p 175

Middle Hittite Period

Levi Clancy — Sat, 12 Sep 2009 15:50:31 +0000

			Lands south of the Taurus and distant territories to the south and east of Anatolia were captured from the Hittites by the Mitanni. Attacks of marauding Kashkan tribes living in the northern mountains of Central Antaolia became a direct threat to Hattusha. Hattusha was destroyed in 1400 BC under the reign of Tudhaliya III; a cuneiform text explains, “Hattusha, the city, was burned to the ground and only [ . . . ] and the Heshti-House of [ . . . ] remained standing” ². Hittite hegemony was limited to the Central Anatolian plateau ¹.

1
p 173-
Seeher, Jürgen. 2006. Hattusha Guide: A Day in the Hittite Capital. Ege Yayinlary: Istanbul.

2
p 175

Hattusha Lower City

Levi Clancy — Fri, 11 Sep 2009 18:10:41 +0000

The Lower City (aka Old City) of Hattusha stretched from the northwestern wall bounding the modern village of Bogazkale all the way southeast to the tip of Büyükkale. The the south and southwest, the Lower City is bound by the Postern Wall.

Structure

Time Period

Overview

Abschnittsmauer

In use during the Hittite empire, the abschnittsmauer was an inner city wall that protected the Great Temple and adjacent settlement. It was 7m thick and adhered to the box system (kasternmauer): an outer and an inner wall (each ~1.5-2m thick) were connected every several meters by transverse walls, forming enclosed box-shaped spaces that were then filled with rubble. Each 20-25m segment of curtain wall was adjoined by a tower that was 3-4m thicker than the curtain wall and protruded at the front.

For security reasons, Hittites kept limited access to their city walls. Only every sixth or seventh tower had a door to get in from the ground outside. Every tower had two doors on its upper story to access the adjacent curtain walls; the curtain walls were only accessible from the towers. Tall rectangular windows were built into the towers on the front, back and two sides protruding from the curtain walls. The tower roofs were accessible via a ladder. To stabilize each story of the towers, an encircling anchorage of large timbers (ringanker) was installed; in the reconstruction, this is visible as a bulging line between each story.

The roof was made of a dense layer of poplar logs, covered by a layer of mud, covered by a 10-12cm thick layer of impermeable earthen çorak. The outer surface of the roof was divided into sections, each slightly sloped to guide rain water to drains. Drains were made of timber halves. These kinds of roofs are still used in Anatolian villages. After heavy rains they require re-sealing and re-sloping; snow must be quickly removed or else trapped melted water will permeate the roof.

Reconstruction of the abschnittsmauer. View from outside the city. Image by L. M. Clancy, 2009/09/07.

Reconstruction of the abschnittsmauer. Tower first story. View from inside the city. Image by L. M. Clancy, 2009/09/05.

Reconstruction of the abschnittsmauer. Tower second story. View from inside the city. Image by L. M. Clancy, 2009/09/05.

Reconstruction

2005 – ?

Sponsored by JT International, a 65m long section of the abschnittsmauer was reconstructed during eleven months, broken into three campaigns between 2003 and 2005. No original brickwork of Hattusha’s city walls remains. Instead, the reconstruction relied upon clay models from the Hittite period and preserved mudbricks elsewhere in Hattusha. To build the bricks, clay-rich soil, straw and water were mixed in large pits; the straw was a temper to prevent cracking during drying. Wood slats were arranged into a grid of 45×10 rectangles; the mixture was poured into the frame; the surfaces were smoothed; and the frame was removed. The bricks were left in the sun to dry for 10-12 days. This prepared mud bricks of the same average size as those preserved in burnt ruins at Hattusha. Approximately 64,000 bricks were produced for the reconstruction of the wall. Mud bricks are sturdy yet rain-sensitive. The walls were dampened and a thin layer of plaster (the same mixture used for the bricks) was hand-applied. With each brick weighing ~34kg, and the weight of the mortar and plaster, nearly 2500 tons of material was used to reconstruct the mud brick wall.

Aerial view of Lower City. Image by L. M. Clancy, 2009/09/06.

View of the Lower City residences with reconstructed Abschnittsmauer in distance. Image by L. M. Clancy, 2009/09/06.

Temple 1, the Lion Basin. Side view. Image by L. M. Clancy, 2009/09/07.

Lower City

3^rd/2^nd MIll BC – ?

The oldest traces of settlement in the Lower City date to the Late Early Bronze Age (straddling the 3^rd and 2^nd millennia BC) by Hattians of local origin. Also excavated were remnants of a karum of the 19^th and 18^th cent BC. When the Hittites established themselves in the lower city, they built a temple with storerooms, and an adjacent residential area. The residences’ house walls were built of sun-dried mud-bricks partially supported by a timber frame; their flat roofs were made of timbers plastered with mud. These multi-room houses contained ovens, open fireplaces and sometimes even clay bathtubs. Water for consumption was carried from neighborhood fountains. A drainage system whisked away sewage via mains beneath streets and alleys.

Temple 1

Temple 1 (Great Temple) is the largest building structure in Hattusha. The temple itself is 65x42m; including its storerooms it is 14,500m². Its construction date is unknown, but it was likely in use during the Hittite Empire. The Temple Building lacks a staircase, indicating it was only one story. Monolithic doorsills mark doorways, aiding to determine the Great Temple’s 82 ground-floor rooms. The storage depots likely had stairwell access to two or even three stories, meaning the storage magazines contained a maximum of 200 storerooms.

Some of the Great Temple’s wall socles were fashioned out of limestone blocks up to 1.5m high and up to 5m long, weighing 20 tons or more. The walls themselves were timber frame construction filled with mudbrick. They were then covered with mud plaster, in areas worked into designs in relief and likely painted lavishly. The roof was made of timbers sealed with mud. Many dowel holes remain, as do the low sills of large windows. The Great Temple was likely kept shuttered, however, due to its sanctity.

Temple 1, the Lion Basin. Approaching view. Image by L. M. Clancy, 2009/09/07.

Temple 1, gateway to the Temple complex. Image by L. M. Clancy, 2009/09/07.

Temple 1, the Green Stone. Büyükkaya in distance. Image by L. M. Clancy, 2009/09/07.

Temple 1 Features

Feature	#	Overview
Lion Basin	1	Originally 5.5m long and carved from a single limestone block. Chisel marks reveal that Byzantine or Roman stonemasons had cut into the block to haul away some pieces. It originally had four lions, one at each corner. Served as either a water basin or base for a large statue.
Gateway	2	The gateway to the temple area has three large thresholds; upon passing through, the thresholds to the left and right must have sheltered the temple guards.
Green Stone	3	A block of green nephrite-type stone common to the region. Once stood elsewhere, as it now is beneath the original surface of the temple storeroom (it is much lower than the nearby doorway). A cruder and smaller green stone is present in Temple 5 in the Upper City.
Water Basin	4	Chiseled from a limestone, perhaps for cultic rituals,
Entrance	5	The entrance to the Inner Court was a narrow passage in the soutwest side. The pivots of doors remain, as well as abrasion from the opening and closing of the heavy wooden doors.
Inner Court	6	At 27x20m, the Inner Court was paved with large flat stones, surrounded by high walls and open to the sky.
Altar	7	Near the far end of the Inner Court is a freestanding socle of gabbro (rather than limestone), a hard blackish-green igneous rock. It likely was an altar.
Stoa	8	A stoa was at the far end of the Inner Court, of which only the gabbro column bases remain. The stoa led to several antechambers and then to the Holy of Holies.
Holy of Holies	9 10	Access to the Holy of Holies was permitted only to the King, Queen, High Prests and certain temple priests. It contained two cult chambers, indicating the Great Temple was dedicated to two deities. These deities were likely the most revered deities, the Weather God of Hatti and the Sun Goddess of Arinna. The gabbro socles were exactly fitted together, sometimes even interlocking. Only the foundations of the western chamber remain; nearly the entire wall socle of the eastern chamber remains, which measures 8x10m.
Other Rooms		Other rooms in the Great Temple were likely for rituals, priestly dressing rooms, storage for cultic objects, sacrificial live animals and also bureaucracy. Regarding bureaucracy, the temples were economically important and used wax-covered pieces of wood for archives; there were even wood-roster scribe job positions. These rooms were empty when excavated.
Storerooms	11	The rooms along the northwest side were empty except for the remains of hundreds of large pottery vessels that were sunk into the ground (some of which still remain). Each vessel held up to 2,000 liters are would have included grains, beans, oil and wine for the temple provender. Mane vessels’ shoulders were scratched with indications of their contents and purpose. The storerooms along the opposite side of the Great Temple served as archives, evidenced by the thousands of cuneiform tablets and fragments.
Street	12	A paved street that runs along the southwest side of the Great Temple and led to the South Gate of the inner city wall. Under the street was a sewage canal to service the immediate locale.
Complex 1	13	Complex 1 (aka Southern District) is a 5300m² building complex that was walled-in with only one entrance. It was completely cleared out when Hattusha was deserted, although cuneiform tablet found in Complex 1 mentions a House of Operations (e-gish-kinti). A House of Operations’ tasks usually involved priests, musicians, singers and bother clay-tablet and wood-roster scribes. Complex 1 likely contained storerooms, cult chambers, workshops and ateliers.
Grotto	14	Just southwest of Complex 1 is a small walled grotto that collected water from a spring. The original lintel is in the Bogazkale Museum. A stele found in the area (now at Museum of Anatolian Civilizations) indicates cultic roles for the spring and grotto.

Temple 1, storerooms with large pottery vessels. Image by L. M. Clancy, 2009/09/05.

Temple 1, drain off the Inner Court. Image by L. M. Clancy, 2009/09/05.

Paved street alongside southwest side of Temple 1; leads to South Gate. Image by L. M. Clancy, 2009/09/07.

House on the Slope

?-13^th Cent BC

In the Old City of the Hittites there were many structures terraced into the slope between the royal citadel of Büyükkale to the Great Temple. One such structure is the House on the Slope, which was a two-storied 32×36 m structure. One room alone in the upper story measured 13×17 m. This grand scale suggests it had an official use. The building was destroyed by fire at the end of the 13^th cent BC. Remnants of the mudbrick walls have survived to present. A comprehensive clay tablet archive was recovered from the ruins of the first story.

Kesikkaya

Kesikkkaya (meaning cut rock) is a rock outcropping with a natural cleft. A Hittite structure once stood atop it, as evidenced by step-like ledges and rows of bore holes. Kesikkaya was used as a source of stone for the Lower City; Roman and Byzantine quarrying is evidenced by scarring high up Kesikkaya.

House on the Slope. Southwest view. Image by L. M. Clancy, 2009/09/05.

Kesikkaya. Image by L. M. Clancy, 2009/09/07.

Bore holes and steps atop Kesikkaya. Image by L. M. Clancy, 2009/09/07.

Postern Wall

16^th Cent BC – ?

The oldest fortification of Hattusha is the Postern Wall, which protected the Lower City on the south and southwest. It followed the valley’s natural contours all the way up to Büyükkale. The Postern Wall was likely erected by Hittite king Hantili, as a tablet from Hattusha’ cuneiform archives alleges that he built fortifications for Hattusha which “earlier had no protection whatsoever” — this likely meant that his fortifications paled earlier attempts. In typical Hittite fashion it was built with casemate walls. Eight posterns beneath the wall were situated 70-180m form each other to connect the inside to the outside. The posterns were of corbeled masonry. Their precise function is unclear, although they have been sally ports; postern is from Latin posterula, meaning back- or side-door). The Postern Wall was renovated and remodeled in the centuries after its construction.

Grain Silo

Old Hittite Era – ?

In the Old Hittite Period a subterranean grain silo was built next to the Postern Wall (note that Büyükkaya is home to a separate silo). The complex was ~118m long and 30-40m wide, containing two rows each containing 16 compartments. The walls (but not floors) were made of ~1.5m thick mud-brick tiles; outside surfaces were insulated with thick layers of clay to keep out moisture. The compartment was then lined with a thick layer of straw. Grain was poured up to the rim of the compartment. Atop this was placed straw and then loamy soil to create a hermetic seal. Though the height of the compartments is unknown, though their capacity was realistically 7-9,000m³. This could suffice 20-30,000 people for a year (barring beer brewing) and must have served as not just a reserve, but as a treasury important to the Hittite king’s economic power.

During the 16^th cent BC the silo complex was engulfed in flames that consumed exterior structures. Some grain burned, but due to low oxygen levels much of it was just charred. Excavations not only uncovered preserved mud-bricks, but also layers over one meter thick of preserved grain, the only find of its kind in the ancient Near East. Most of the grain was barley, but various seeds of weeds and other plants were also present; these likely grew in the fields and made their way into the harvest.

Postern Wall, view of the postern nearest to Kesikkaya. Image by L. M. Clancy, 2009/09/07.

Grain silos. Image by L. M. Clancy, 2009/09/07.

Kizlar Kaya. Southwest view. Image by L. M. Clancy, 2009/09/06.

Kizlar Kaya

Kizlar Kaya (Maiden’s Rock) gained its name by a rumor of a relief of a young girl on the rock face. Roman and Byzantine masons removed stone blocks from Kizlar Kaya, though its configuring is largely preserved. Atop Kizlar Kaya is a platform with bore holes, benches and altar-like spaces that indicate a structure may have existed.

Lower West Gate

Hittite Empire

The West Gates are part of the west side of the Upper City fortification wall. However, they are more proximal to the Lower City. Unlike the gates in this fortification — the Lion and King Gates — these West Gates have no aesthetic other than attractive parabolic arches. The Lower West Gate is atop a street that runs parallel to the Postern Wall, indicating that the path was in use during the Old Hittite Period long before the West Gates were actually built.

Upper West Gate

Hittite Empire

The Upper West Gate accessed to a high ridge of the Upper City that has not been fully excavated.

Lower West Gate. Southeast View. Image by L. M. Clancy, 2009/09/06.

Lower West Gate. Door pivot. Image by L. M. Clancy, 2009/09/06.

Lower West Gate. Fossil on northeast corner. Image by L. M. Clancy, 2009/09/06.

	Seeher, Jürgen. 2006. Hattusha Guide: A Day in the Hittite Capital. Ege Yayinlary: Istanbul. (also available online)

Luvians

Levi Clancy — Wed, 09 Sep 2009 21:09:29 +0000

Luvians drifted into south and west Anatolia during the second half of the 3^rd millenium BC. Also entering Anatolia were the Palaians (north and northwest) and Hittites (central).

Palaians

Levi Clancy — Wed, 09 Sep 2009 21:08:10 +0000

Palaians drifted into north and northwest Anatolia during the second half of the 3^rd millenium BC. Also entering Anatolia were the Luvians (south and west) and Hittites (central).