Probe Overview Ig DNA Unrearranged DNA shows as a single line. Rearranged DNA shows as a smear. I mRNA When T cell help ( CD40-CD40L) interaction occurs there is DNA rearrangement such that VH is joined to Cε; Iε is removed from the genome and the mRNA no longer contains it. If I mRNA is [...]

Topic Overview Adoptive Transfer Type of immunization involving the transfer of “sensitized” cells, serum or other components to a recipient. Hapten-Carrier Hapten-Carrier Hapten Carrier Protein ARS-OVA Azophenylarsonate Ovalbumin DNP-BGG Dinitrophenol Bovine gamma globulin LAC-HGG Phenyllactoside Human gamma globulin NIP-KLH S-nitrophenyl acetic acid Keyhole limpet hemocyanin TNP-BSA Trinitrophenyl Bovine serum albumin Haptens must be bound to [...]

Knockout Overview IL-6 You get normal development except there are no plasma cells. IL-6 is required for plasma cell development. AID AID is an enzyme needed for somatic hypermutation (affinity maturation, and more) and also isotype switching (cytokines are needed simultaneously for isotype switching). You get normal development of B and T cells. However all [...]

κλ Kappa (κ) and lambda (λ) are the two light chain isotypes. Antibody light chains have a constant region (IgCL) at one end and a variable region (IgVL) at the other end. Light chain variable regions are either kappa (κ) isotype or lambda (λ) isotype. The two light chain isotypes have no known functional differences. [...]

CD Overview CD1 Human CD1 is encoded by five non-polymorphic and closely linked (very near each other) genes on Chromosome 1. These genes — CdD1a,b,c,d,e — have an intron/exon structure similar to MHC Class I genes and encode proteins homologous (similar) to MHC Class I and MHC Class II proteins. However, CD1 proteins are able [...]

Note: This author uses the phrases ‘acquired immunity’ and ‘adaptive immunity’ interchangeably. ‘Immune response’ refers to aspects of the immune system which are antigen-specific. Adaptive immunity is triggered when an infection eludes innate defenses and generates a threshold of antigen. Acquired immunity is effective only after several days, the time required for antigen-specific T and [...]

Innate immunity is a non-specific inherited defense system that provides a general response against all pathogens. Innate immunity provides the body’s first protection against invaders (on the other hand, acquired immunity — aka adaptive immunity — responds to a persisting infection). Innate immunity stimulates adaptive immunity, influencing its expression to optimize its response against the [...]

The inflammatory response is characterized by the following three events: Vasodilation. Vasodilation is an increase in blood vessel diameter. Permeability. Capillaries increase in permeability, allowing exudate to flow to and swell the site of inflammation. Phagocyte influx. An influx of phagocytes consists of three steps: margination, where phagocytes adhere to the capillary endothelium; extravasation, where [...]

The cells of the immune system function to combat viruses in two ways: B cells secrete antibodies which neutralize the virus (humoral immunity) and T cells recognize and kill infected cells (cell-mediated immunity) In addition, interferon activity is very effective. Just a few molecules of interferon bound to the surface of a cell can protect [...]

Cytokines (aka monokines or lymphokines) are regulatory proteins which bind specific receptors and have pleiotropic (multiple) or redundant functions. Cytokines are important for: activation, such as stimulation proliferation of activated T cells; recruitment signals, such as brining cells to sites of inflammation; and differentiation, such as of lymphocytes in the thymus and bone marrow. There [...]

The most important function of the human immune system occurs at the cellular level of the blood and tissues. The lymphatic and blood circulation systems are highways for specialized white blood cells to travel around the body. White blood cells include B cells, T cells, natural killer cells, and macrophages. Each has a different responsibility, [...]

Cell-mediated immunity is an immune response that does not involve antibodies but rather involves the activation of macrophages and natural killer cells, the production of antigen-specific cytotoxic T-lymphocytes, and the release of various cytokines in response to an antigen. These mechanisms are described below. Cell-mediated immunity is directed primarily at microbes that survive in phagocytes [...]

The immune system has evolved to deal with invasion by microbial pathogens. The main task of the immune system is to distinguish self from non-self. The immune system must not attack and destroy self, but it must eliminate whole organisms (such as bacteria and fungi) as well as intracellular pathogens (such as viruses). Connected by [...]